Risk management for insect pollinators in the United States: past practices, current developments, and future directions

Past practices: Over the last 140 years, most serious bee kill incidents in the United States were caused by the use of highly toxic insecticides with extended residual toxicity. Several universities conducted research on pollinator safety, and their research was used to develop guidance on protecting bees from pesticides and USEPA test methods for pollinators. Risk management activities conducted by state and federal agencies primarily focused on the acute toxicity of foliar applied insecticides to honey bees (Apis mellifera L.).
Current developments: Risk management in the US is undergoing a significant transformation. Regulatory agencies are working on improving risk assessment and mitigation. Concerns include acute and chronic effects of pesticides on multiple species of bees via multiple routes of exposure. Guidance on risk assessment for pollinators has been significantly updated to address several of these concerns. State and federal agencies, universities, registrants, non-governmental organizations, beekeepers, growers, applicators and others are becoming actively involved in risk management activities.
Future directions: Regulatory agencies in the US are increasing their involvement in activities to improve risk management for pollinators. Continued collaborative efforts between multiple stakeholders, including regulatory and non-regulatory approaches, should help improve our ability to protect pollinators from pesticides.