Organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in water and air. Part I: Occurrence and fate

Organophosphate esters (OPEs), in particular triesters, are high-production-volume chemicals used as flame retardants and plasticizers to protect or to enhance the properties of plastics, textiles, furniture and many other materials. The widespread usage, which may even increase due to the ban of brominated diphenylethers as flame retardants, and the diffusion from host materials result in continuous release of OPEs and their distribution through water, especially wastewater, and air, particularly associated with airborne particulate matter. This work highlights the occurrence of OPEs in wastewater, surface water and groundwater as well as indoor and outdoor air and particulate material.We discuss the major processes affecting the fate of OPEs in the environment, such as sorption, volatilization and biodegradation. Of the OPEs studied thus far, chlorinated tri(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and tri(chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP) appear to be most recalcitrant and ubiquitous in water and air. We identified knowledge gaps concerning the fate of diesters and monoesters in the aqueous environment, the biodegradation of OPEs under less favorable conditions (sorbed to particles or under anoxic or anaerobic conditions) as well as the behavior of OPEs in the atmosphere and their potential for long-range transport.A second part, addressing analytical methods will published in the next issue [J.B. Quintana, R. Rodil, T. Reemtsma, M. Garcia-López, I. Rodriguez, Trends Anal. Chem. (to be published in 27 (10) (2008))].